Fair Play Publications

1. Carnes, M., Handelsman, J., & Sheridan, J. (2005). Diversity in academic medicine: A stages of change model. Journal of Women’s Health, 14, 471-475.
2. Carnes, M., Devine, P.G., Manwell, L.B., Byars-Winston, A., Fine, E., Ford, C.E., Forscher, P., Isaac, C., Kaatz, A., Magua, W., Palta, M., & Sheridan, J. (2015). Effect of an intervention to break the gender bias habit: A cluster randomized, controlled trial. Academic Medicine, 90(2), 221-230.
3. Carnes, M., Devine, P.G., Isaac, C., Manwell, L.B., Ford, C.E., Byars-Winston, A., Fine, E., & Sheridan, J.T. (2012). Promoting institutional change through bias literacy. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 5(2), 63–77.
4. Kaatz, A., Carnes, M., Guterrez, B., Savoy, J., Samuel, C., Filut, A., & Pribbenow, C.M. (2017). Fair Play : A study of scientific workforce trainers’ experience playing an educational video game about racial bias. CBE Life Sciences Education, 16(2), 27.
5. Pribbenow, C.M., Caldwell, K.E.H., Dantzler, D.D., Brown, P., & Carnes, M. (2021). Decreasing racial bias through a facilitated game and workshop: The case of Fair Play. Simulation and Gaming, 52(3), 386-402.

Resources for Etiology of Race

1. Andreasen, R. O. (2000). Race: Biological reality or social construct? Philosophy of Science, 67, S653-S666.
2. Beckwith, J., Bergamen, K., Carson, M., Doerr, M., Geller, L., et al. Using dialogues to explore genetics, ancestry, and race. The American Biology Teacher, 79(7), 525-537.
3. Brawley, O. W. (2021). Prostate cancer and the social construct of race. Cancer, 127(9), 1374-1376.
4. Morning, A. (2007). “Everyone knows it’s a social construct”: Contemporary science and the nature of race. Sociological Focus, 40(4), 436-454.
5. Witzig, R. (1996). The medicalization of race: Scientific legitimization of a flawed social construct. Annals of Internal Medicine, 125(8), 675-679.

Resources for Implicit Bias and Stereotypes

1. Ashburn-Nardo, L., Morris, K. A., & Goodwin, S. A. (2008). The confronting prejudiced responses (CPR) model: Applying CPR in organizations. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 7(3). 332-342.
2. Biernat, M., Collins, E.C., Katzarska-Miller, I., & Thompson, E.R. (2009). Race-based shifting standards and racial discrimination. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 53(1), 16-28.
3. Carr, P. B., Dweck, C. S., & Pauker, K. (2012). “Prejudiced” behavior without prejudice? Beliefs about the malleability of prejudice affect interracial interactions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103(3), 452-471.
4. Carli, L. L., Alawa, L., Lee, Y., Zhao, B., & Kim, E. (2016). Stereotypes about gender and science: Women scientists. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(2), 244-260.
5. Carton, A. M., & Rosette, A. S. (2011). Explaining bias against black leaders: Integrating theory on information processing and goal-based stereotyping. Academy of Management Journal, 54(6), 1141-1158.
6. Chapman, E.N., Kaatz, A., & Carnes, M. (2013). Physicians and implicit bias: How doctors may unwittingly perpetuate health care disparities. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 28(11), 1504–1510.
7. DePass, A. L., & Chubin, D. L. (2017). Overcoming bias. Understanding Interventions, 8(1), 2647.
8. Devine, P.G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(1), 5-18.
9. Devine, P.G., & Elliot, A.J. (1995). Are racial stereotypes really fading? The Princeton trilogy revisited. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(11), 1139-1150.
10. Devine, P.G., Plant, E.A., & Buswell, B.N. (2000). Breaking the prejudice habit: Progress and obstacles. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), “The Claremont Symposium on Applied Social Psychology” Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination, 185-208.
11. Devine, P.G., Forscher, P.S., Austin, A.J., & Cox, W.T.L. (2012). Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(6), 1267–1278.
12. Eagly, A. H., & Sczesny, S. (2009). Stereotypes about women, men, and leaders: Have times changed?In M. Barreto, M. K. Ryan, & M. T. Schmitt (Eds.), Psychology of women book series. The glass ceiling in the 21st century: Understanding barriers to gender equality (p. 21–47). American Psychological Association.
13. Eaton, A.A., Saunders, A.F., Jacobson, R.K., West, K. (2019). How gender and race stereotypes impact the advancement of scholars in STEM: Professors’ biased evaluations of physics and biology post-doctoral candidates. Sex Roles, 82, 127-141.
14. Freng, S., & Willis-Esqueda, C. (2011). A question of honor: Chief Wahoo and American Indian stereotype activation among a university based sample. The Journal of Social Psychology, 151(2), 577-591.
15. Ghavami, N., & Peplau, L.A. (2013). An intersectional analysis of gender and ethnic stereotypes: Testing three hypotheses. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37(1), 113-127.
16. Kang, O., & Rubin, D.L. (2009). Reverse linguistic stereotyping: Measuring the effect of listener expectations on speech evaluation. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 58, 502-521.
17. King, E.B., Madera, J.M., Hebl, M.R., Knight, J.L., & Mendoza, S.A. (2006). What’s in a name? A multiracial investigation of the role of occupational stereotypes in selection decisions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36(5), 1145-1159.
18. Legault, L., Gutsell, J.E., & Inzlicht, M., (2011). Ironic effects of antiprejudice messages: How motivational interventions can reduce (but also increase) prejudice. Psychological Science, 22(12), 1472-1477.
19. Leslie, S.J., Cimpian, A., Meyer, M., Freeland, E. (2015). Expectations of brilliance underlie gender distributions across academic disciplines. Science, 347(6219), 262-265.
20. Reeves, A.N. (2014). Written in black & white: Exploring confirmation bias in racialized perceptions of writing skills. Nextions Yellow Paper Series.
21. Rubin, D.L. (1992). Nonlanguage factors affecting undergraduate’s judgments of nonnative English-speaking teaching assistants. Research in Higher Education, 33, 511-531.
22. Sevo, R., Chubin, D.E., (2008). Bias Literacy: A review of concepts in research on discrimination.
23. Singh J. (1993). Boundary role ambiguity: Facets, determinants, and impacts. Journal of Marketing, 57(2), 11-31.
24. Todd, A.R., & Bodenhausen, G.V. (2011). Perspective taking combats automatic expressions of racial bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(6), 1027-42.
25. Wilson, J.P., Hugenberg, K., & Rule, N.O. (2017). Racial bias in judgments of physical size and formidability: From size to threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(1), 59-80.

Resources for Promoting Behavioral Change

1. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.
2. Bandura, A. (1991). Self-efficacy mechanism in physiological activation and health-promoting behavior. In J. Madden, IV. (Ed.), Neurobiology of learning, emotion, and affect, 229-270.
3. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
4. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-Efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman.
5. Bem, D. J., & Allen, A. (1974). On predicting some of the people some of the time: The search for cross-situational consistencies in behavior. Psychological Review, 81(6), 506-520.

Resources for Strategies to Empower Graduate Students and Postdocs

1. Burt, B., McKen, A., Burkhart, J., Hormell, J., &Knight, A. (2019). Black men in engineering graduate education: Experiencing racial microaggressions with the advisor-advisee relationship. The Journal of Negro Education, 88(4). 493-508.
2. Burt, B. A., Williams, K. L., & Smith W. A. (2018). Into the storm: Ecological and sociological impediments to black males’ persistence in engineering graduate programs. American Educational Research Journal, 55(5). 965-1006.
3. Burt, B. A., Roberson, J. J., Johnson, J. T., & Bonanno, A. (2020). Black Men in Engineering Graduate Programs: A Theoretical Model of the Motivation to Persist. Teachers College Record, 58.
4. Burt, B. A., Stone, B. D., Motshubi, R., & Baber, L. D. (2020). STEM validation among underrepresented students: Leveraging insights from a STEM diversity program to broaden participation. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education.
5. Campbell, C., Dortch, D., & Burt, B. A. (2018). Reframing rigor: A modern look at challenge and support in higher education. New Directions for Higher Education, 181. 11-23.
6. Charleston, L., & Leon, R. (2016). Constructing self-efficacy in STEM graduate education. Journal for Multicultural Education, 10(2). 152-166.
7. Gazley, J. L., & Campbell, P. B. (2020). The role of resilience in black men’s success in STEM graduate programs. The Journal of Negro Education, 89(3). 360-372.
8. Gazley, J. L., et al. (2014). Beyond preparation: Identity, cultural capital, and readiness for graduate school in the biomedical sciences. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 51(8). 1021-1048.
9. Gomez, M. L., Khurshid, A., Freitag, M. B., & Lachuk, A. J. (2011). Microaggressions in students’ lives: How are they encountered and their consequences. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27, 1189-1199.
10. Greier-Reed, T., Said, R., & Quiñones, M. (2021). From antiblackness to cultural health in higher education. Education Sciences, 11(2), 57.
11. Ragland Woods, C. C., Chronister, K. M., Perez Grabow, A., Woods, W. E., & Woodlee, K. (2021). Racial battle fatigue: The experiences of black/African American, biracial black, and multiracial black identified graduate students. Journal of Black Psychology, 47(4-5). 219-243.

Resources for Gameplay

1. Coren, M. (2011). “Foldit gamers solve riddle of HIV enzyme within 3 weeks: The online game poses protein-folding puzzles, and participants provided insights recently that solved the structure of an enzyme involved in reproduction of HIV.” Retrieved Oct 23, 2015 from: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/foldit-gamers-solve-riddle/
2. Holmes, E.A., & James, E.L. (2009). Can playing the computer game “Tetris” reduce the build-up of flashbacks for trauma? A Proposal from cognitive science. PLoS ONE, 4(1), e4153.
3. Khatib, F., & DiMaio, F. (2011). Crystal structure of a monomeric retroviral protease solved by protein folding game players. Nature Structural & Molecular Biology, 18(10), 1175–1177.
4. Tate, R., & Haritatos, J. (2009). HopeLab’s approach to Re-Mission. International Journal of Learning and Media, 1(1), 29-35.

Resources for Bystander Intervention

1. Ashburn-Nardo, Morris & Goodwin, 2008; Bowes-Sperry & O’Leary-Kelly, 2005; and The Bystander Leadership Program (FIU-ADVANCE, 2018).

Resources for Responsible Conduct in Research (RCR):

https://oir.nih.gov/sourcebook/ethical-conduct/responsible-conduct-research-training

Fair Play provides players with the opportunity to take the perspective of Jamal Davis, a Black graduate student on his way to becoming a renowned professor. In this game, players experience racial bias during interactions with other characters, as well as in the virtual environment. As Jamal, the road to success involves navigating the academic world; as a Black student, bias can steer you off of a successful path. Winning in Fair Play involves learning when and how to name biases. While many will succeed in Fair Play, the true winners are those that learn the reality of bias.

Evolution of Fair Play and the Fair Play Workshop

Led by Dr. Molly Carnes at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Fair Play was designed as a learning tool to provide an opportunity to see the graduate school journey through the eyes of a Black student (Virtual Games for STEMM Faculty to Break the Bias Habit, DP4 GM096822-01; 2010-2014). Fair Play represents a true-to-life simulation of the complex social world for a graduate student in academia. In the game, the player takes on the role of Jamal Davis, a Black graduate student on his way to becoming a renowned professor.  As Jamal, you will find an advisor, secure funding, establish social networks, publish papers, and attend conferences. In addition to recreating the graduate experience, Fair Play presents real-life examples of bias concepts such as microaggressions, color-blind racial attitudes, tokenism and others. The game involves taking on the challenges of a graduate student while also learning when, how or if to name biases.

With the success of the Fair Play game, Dr. Christine Pribbenow, of the University of Wisconsin-Madison, developed the Fair Play Workshop (Do You Play Fair? A Workshop About Bias in Academia, NIH-R25GM114002, 2015-2021). The workshop was designed to highlight many of the obstacles that can prevent minorities from excelling in post-graduate education, increase awareness of different types of racial bias, and teach bias-reducing strategies.

Fair Play for Graduate Students and Postdocs

In 2020, Dr. Pribbenow received additional funding from the NIH to develop The Fair Play Workshop for Graduate Students and Postdoctoral Scientists and additional programming to support participants such as webinars and affinity groups (Fair Play: Bias Literacy and Resiliency Training to Empower the Future Biomedical Workforce, NIH-2R25GM114002, 2020-2025). The workshop centers on providing STEMM graduate students and postdoctoral scientists with strategies to empower them to persist in their field of study. The workshop is composed of three modules of learning. The first module of the workshop provides a brief outline of the history of race, an overview of implicit bias, and discusses the impacts of implicit bias in academia. The workshop then moves to gameplay inviting participants to play the Fair Play Game. After gameplay, facilitators lead participants in a discussion and debrief around their experiences in the game and provide an overview of the different types of racial bias. The final module of the workshop explores strategies to empower graduate students and postdoctoral scientists to persist in their field and discusses bias intervention strategies.

Research Supporting the Development of Fair Play

Although most people have personal values that oppose prejudice, we all grow up in a culture replete with stereotypes and biased representations of members of minority groups. These stereotypes are learned at a young age, and create automatic bias that can affect our behavior, even when our conscious values oppose bias (Devine, 1989).

Becoming aware of our potential to behave in unintentionally biased ways is the first step to overcoming these implicit biases. If we are aware that we may have unintentionally activated bias, we can be mindful of situations in which this bias can occur, and make sure we behave in ways that are consistent with our personal values that oppose prejudice (Carnes et al., 2012, 2015; Devine et al., 2012).

Members of stigmatized groups frequently report microaggressions — commonplace daily indignities that are often unintentional, but nevertheless have negative effects on those targeted by them (Sue et al., 2007). Even if the perpetrator of a microaggression has no ill intentions, the effect on the target can be devastating, especially given that these microaggressions are so common, and they add up, leading to increased anxiety and even depression (Cox et al., 2012).

Using Fair Play as a learning tool provides the opportunity to see the graduate school journey through the eyes of a Black student, our Fair Play Workshop highlights many of the obstacles that sometimes prevent minorities from excelling in post-graduate education. The workshop increases awareness about different sorts of microaggressions and teaches techniques for overcoming them within oneself and addressing them in others. This workshop can help us all in our goals to reduce unintentional biases within ourselves and promote excellence in people of all backgrounds.

Fair Play is based on principles drawn from research and other published works. Some of the key arguments for its approach are on our Resources page, along with other papers, if you are interested in learning more about these topics.

Fair Play is based on principles drawn from research and other published works. Some of the key arguments for its approach are below, along with other papers, if you are interested in learning more about these topics.

Although most people have personal values that oppose prejudice, we all grow up in a culture replete with stereotypes and biased representations of members of minority groups. These stereotypes are learned at a young age, and create automatic bias that can affect our behavior, even when our conscious values oppose bias (Devine, 1989).

Becoming aware of our potential to behave in unintentionally biased ways is the first step to overcoming these implicit biases. If we are aware that we may have unintentionally activated bias, we can be mindful of situations in which this bias can occur, and make sure we behave in ways that are consistent with our personal values that oppose prejudice (Carnes et al., 2012, 2015; Devine et al., 2012).

Members of stigmatized groups frequently report microaggressions — commonplace daily indignities that are often unintentional, but nevertheless have negative effects on those targeted by them (Sue et al., 2007). Even if the perpetrator of a microaggression has no ill intentions, the effect on the target can be devastating, especially given that these microaggressions are so common, and they add up, leading to increased anxiety and even depression (Cox et al., 2012).

Using Fair Play as a learning tool provides the opportunity to see the graduate school journey through the eyes of a Black student, our Fair Play Workshop highlights many of the obstacles that sometimes prevent minorities from excelling in post-graduate education. The workshop increases awareness about different sorts of microaggressions and teaches techniques for overcoming them within oneself and addressing them in others. This workshop can help us all in our goals to reduce unintentional biases within ourselves and promote excellence in people of all backgrounds.

To read more about Fair Play and other evidence-based workshops and bias interventions:

Carnes, M., Devine, P. G., Isaac, C., Manwell, L. B., Ford, C. E., Byars-Winston, A., & … Sheridan, J. (2012). Promoting institutional change through bias literacy. Journal Of Diversity In Higher Education, 5(2), 63-77. doi:10.1037/a0028128

Carnes, M., Devine, P. G., Manwell, L. B., Byars-Winston, A., Fine, E., Ford, C. E., & … Sheridan, J. (2015). The effect of an intervention to break the gender bias habit for faculty at one institution: A cluster randomized, controlled trial. Academic Medicine, 90(2), 221-230. doi:10.1097/ACM.0000000000000552

Devine, P. G., Forscher, P. S., Austin, A. J., & Cox, W. L. (2012). Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention. Journal Of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(6), 1267-1278. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.06.003

Gutierrez, B., Kaatz, A. Chu, S., Ramirez, D., Samson-Samuel, C., & Carnes, M., (2014). Fair Play: A video game designed to reduce implicit bias through active perspective taking. Games for Health Journal,  3(6), 371-378. doi:10.1089/g4h.2013.0071.

Isaac, C., Lee, B., & Carnes, M. (2009). Interventions that affect gender bias in hiring: a systematic review. Academic Medicine, 84(10), 1440-1446. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181b6ba00

For more on how video games can be used to help learning:

Gee, J.P. (2007). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy (Rev. ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

To learn more about implicit biases, and about how awareness can help people behave consistently with their values:

Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 56(1), 5-18. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5

Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002). Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 82(1), 62-68. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.82.1.62

McConnell, A. R., & Leibold, J. M. (2001). Relations among the Implicit Association Test, discriminatory behavior, and explicit measures of racial attitudes. Journal Of Experimental Social Psychology, 37(5), 435-442. doi:10.1006/jesp.2000.1470

Plant, E. A., & Devine, P. G. (2009). The active control of prejudice: Unpacking the intentions guiding control efforts. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 96(3), 640-652. doi:10.1037/a0012960

To learn more about the forms unintentional bias can take:

Biernat, M., & Kobrynowicz, D. (1997). Gender- and race-based standards of competence: Lower minimum standards but higher ability standards for devalued groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,72(3), 544-557. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.544

Cox, W. T. L., Abramson, L. Y., Devine, P. G., & Hollon, S. D. (2012). Stereotypes, prejudice, and depression: The integrated perspective. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(5), 427-449. doi:10.1177/1745691612455204

Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review,109(3), 573-598. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.109.3.573.

Galinsky, A. D., & Moskowitz, G. B. (2000). Perspective-taking: Decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 78(4), 708-724. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.708

Heilman, M. E., Wallen, A. S., Fuchs, D., & Tamkins, M. M. (2004). Penalties for Success: Reactions to Women Who Succeed at Male Gender-Typed Tasks. Journal Of Applied Psychology, 89(3), 416-427. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.89.3.416

Hugenberg, K., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2003). Facing prejudice: Implicit prejudice and the perception of facial threat. Psychological Science, 14(6), 640-643. doi:10.1046/j.0956-7976.2003.psci_1478.x.

Kaatz, A., Magua, W., Zimmerman, D. R., & Carnes, M. (2015). A quantitative linguistic analysis of National Institutes of Health R01 application critiques from investigators at one institution. Academic Medicine, 90(1), 69-75. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000000442.

Koenig, A. M., Eagly, A. H., Mitchell, A. A., & Ristikari, T. (2011). Are leader stereotypes masculine? A meta-analysis of three research paradigms. Psychological Bulletin, 137(4), 616-642. doi:10.1037/a0023557

Ley, T. J., & Hamilton, B. H. (2008). The gender gap in NIH grant applications. Science, 322(5907), 1472-1474. doi: 10.1126/science.1165878

Moss-Racusin, C. A., Dovidio, J. F., Brescoll, V. L., Graham, M. J., & Handelsman, J. (2012). Science faculty’s subtle gender biases favor male students. PNAS Proceedings Of The National Academy Of Sciences Of The United States Of America, 109(41), 16474-16479. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1211286109

Plaut, V. C., Thomas, K. M., & Goren, M. J. (2009). Is multiculturalism or color blindness better for minorities?. Psychological Science, 20(4), 444-446. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02318.x

Uhlmann, E. L., & Cohen, G. L. (2007). ‘I think it, therefore it’s true’: Effects of self-perceived objectivity on hiring discrimination. Organizational Behavior And Human Decision Processes, 104(2), 207-223. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2007.07.001

To Learn More About the Specific Types of Bias Covered in the Game:

Attributional Rationalization: Group stereotypes may lead to assumptions that people from underrepresented groups are less competent than their majority peers. As a result, they may not receive credit for their accomplishments, which are often incorrectly attributed to others or to factors other than their efforts (e.g., luck).

Biernat, M., & Sesko, A. K. (2013). Evaluating the contributions of members of mixed-sex work teams: Race and gender matter. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49(3), 471-476. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2013.01.008

Greenhaus, J. H., & Parasuraman, S. (1993). Job performance attributions and career advancement prospects: An examination of gender and race effects. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 55(2), 273-297. doi:10.1006/obhd.1993.1034

Heilman, M. E., & Haynes, M. C. (2005). No Credit Where Credit Is Due: Attributional Rationalization of Women’s Success in Male-Female Teams. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(5), 905-916. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.90.5.905

Heilman, M. E., & Herlihy, J. M. (1984). Affirmative action, negative reaction? Some moderating conditions. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 33(2), 204-213. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(84)90021-7

Color-Blind Racial Attitudes: Color-blind racial attitudes reflect the belief that discrimination no longer exists. Though based on the positive premise that we should all be treated equally, a color-blind approach discounts the experiences of members of minority groups and can backfire to promote bias.

Correll, J., Park, B., & Smith, J. A. (2008). Colorblind and multicultural prejudice reduction strategies in high-conflict situations. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 11(4), 471-491. doi:10.1177/1368430208095401

Markus, H. R., Steele, C. M., & Steele, D. M. (2000). Colorblindness as a barrier to inclusion: Assimilation and nonimmigrant minorities. Daedalus, 233-259.

Morrison, K. R., Plaut, V. C., & Ybarra, O. (2010). Predicting whether multiculturalism positively or negatively influences white Americans’ intergroup attitudes: The role of ethnic identification. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(12), 1648-1661. doi:10.1177/0146167210386118

Plaut, V. C., Thomas, K. M., & Goren, M. J. (2009). Is multiculturalism or color blindness better for minorities?. Psychological Science, 20(4), 444-446. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02318.x

Richeson, J. A., & Nussbaum, R. J. (2004). The impact of multiculturalism versus color-blindness on racial bias. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40(3), 417-423. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2003.09.002

Competency Proving: To counter common assumptions about their presumed incompetence, members of minority groups frequently and repeatedly have to demonstrate that they are indeed qualified, capable, and/or competent.

Biernat, M., & Kobrynowicz, D. (1997). Gender- and race-based standards of competence: Lower minimum standards but higher ability standards for devalued groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,72(3), 544-557. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.544

Cheryan, S., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2000). When positive stereotypes threaten intellectual performance: The psychological hazards of ‘model minority’ status. Psychological Science, 11(5), 399-402. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00277

Hodson, G., Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002). Processes in racial discrimination: Differential weighting of conflicting information. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(4), 460-471. doi:10.1177/0146167202287004

Vescio, T. K., & Biernat, M. (1999). When stereotype-based expectancies impair performance: The effect of prejudice, race, and target quality on judgments and perceiver performance. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29(7), 961-969. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199911)29:7<961::AID-EJSP977>3.0.CO;2-4

Waldman, D. A., & Avolio, B. J. (1991). Race effects in performance evaluations: Controlling for ability, education, and experience. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(6), 897-901. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.76.6.897

Failure to Differentiate: Members of a particular minority group may sometimes be mistaken for one another by a person of a different group. All groups share this unintentional recognition bias, but research suggests the effect is most pronounced for White individuals when viewing racial and ethnic minorities.

Bernstein, M. J., Young, S. G., & Hugenberg, K. (2007). The cross-category effect: Mere social categorization is sufficient to elicit an own-group bias in face recognition. Psychological Science, 18(8), 706-712. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01964.x

Hugenberg, K., Miller, J., & Claypool, H. M. (2007). Categorization and individuation in the cross-race recognition deficit: Toward a solution to an insidious problem. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43(2), 334-340. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.02.010

Tanaka, J. W., Kiefer, M., & Bukach, C. M. (2004). A holistic account of the own-race effect in face recognition: Evidence from a cross-cultural study. Cognition, 93(1), B1-B9. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2003.09.011

Impression Management: People from historically low status or underrepresented groups must often pay more conscious attention to how they behave (e.g., a Black student may consciously modulate his/her tone of voice or volume of speech to prevent activating the racial stereotype of being angry or aggressive) or how they dress in order to reinforce their professional role. A casual appearance may elicit prevailing negative images of their group.

Abrams, L., & Trusty, J. (2004). African Americans’ Racial Identity and Socially Desirable Responding: An Empirical Model. Journal of Counseling and Development, 82(3), 365-374. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2004.tb00322.x

Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. New York: Doubleday.

Turnley, W. H., & Bolino, M. C. (2001). Achieving desired images while avoiding undesired images: Exploring the role of self-monitoring in impression management. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(2), 351-360. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.86.2.351

von Hippel, W., von Hippel, C., Conway, L., Preacher, K. J., Schooler, J. W., & Radvansky, G. A. (2005). Coping with stereotype threat: Denial as an impression management strategy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(1), 22-35. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.1.22

Racial Microaggressions: Microaggressions are brief and subtle comments, behaviors, or environmental cues that intentionally or unintentionally communicate hostile, derogatory, or unwelcoming messages toward members of underrepresented groups. When accumulated, these seemingly minor messages lead to harmful isolation and alienation. There are three types of microaggressions: microassaults, microinsults, and microinvalidations.

Boysen, G. A., & Vogel, D. L. (2009). Bias in the classroom: Types, frequencies, and responses. Teaching of Psychology, 36(1), 12-17. doi:10.1080/00986280802529038

Cabrera, A. F., & Nora, A. (1999). Campus racial climate and the adjustment of students to college. Journal of Higher Education, 70(2), 134-160.

Constantine, M. G., & Sue, D. W. (2007). Perceptions of racial microaggressions among black supervisees in cross-racial dyads. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(2), 142-153. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.54.2.142

McCabe, J. (2009). Racial and gender microaggressions on a predominantly-white campus: Experiences of black, latina/o and white undergraduates. Race, Gender and Class, 133-151.

Smith, W. A., Allen, W. R., & Danley, L. L. (2007). ‘Assume the position…You fit the description’: Psychosocial experiences and racial battle fatigue among African American male college students. American Behavioral Scientist, 51(4), 551-578. doi:10.1177/0002764207307742

Sue, D. W. (2010). Microaggressions in everyday life: Race, gender, and sexual orientation. Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Sue, D. W. (2010). Microaggressions and marginality: Manifestation, dynamics, and impact. Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., & Holder, A. B. (2008). Racial microaggressions in the life experience of Black Americans. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 39(3), 329-336. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.39.3.329

Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Nadal, K. L., & Torino, G. C. (2008). Racial microaggressions and the power to define reality. American Psychologist, 63(4), 277-279. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.63.4.277

Sue, D. W., Lin, A. I., Torino, G. C., Capodilupo, C. M., & Rivera, D. P. (2009). Racial microaggressions and difficult dialogues on race in the classroom. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15(2), 183-190. doi:10.1037/a0014191

Sue, D.W, Torino, G. C., Capodilupo, C. M., Rivera, D. P., & Lin, A. I. (2009). How white faculty perceive and react to difficult dialogues on race: Implications for education and training. The Counseling Psychologist,37(8), 1090-1115. doi:10.1177/0011000009340443

Torres, L., Driscoll, M. W., & Burrow, A. L. (2010). Racial microaggressions and psychological functioning among highly achieving African-Americans: A mixed-methods approach. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology,29(10), 1074-1099. doi:10.1521/jscp.2010.29.10.1074

Shifting Standards of Judgment: The presumed incompetence of members of underrepresented groups causes well-qualified underrepresented individuals to be judged as highly competent when compared to members of their group. But, they are held to even higher standards and require greater proof of competence than comparable members of the majority group.

Biernat, M., Collins, E. C., Katzarska-Miller, I., & Thompson, E. R. (2009). Race-based shifting standards and racial discrimination. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35(1), 16-28. doi:10.1177/0146167208325195

Biernat, M., Fuegen, K., & Kobrynowicz, D. (2010). Shifting standards and the inference of incompetence: Effects of formal and informal evaluation tools. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(7), 855-868. doi:10.1177/0146167210369483

Biernat, M., & Kobrynowicz, D. (1997). Gender- and race-based standards of competence: Lower minimum standards but higher ability standards for devalued groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,72(3), 544-557. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.544

Biernat, M., & Manis, M. (1994). Shifting standards and stereotype-based judgments. Journal of Personality And Social Psychology, 66(1), 5-20. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.66.1.5

Gushue, G. V. (2004). Race, Color-Blind Racial Attitudes, and Judgments About Mental Health: A Shifting Standards Perspective. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51(4), 398-407. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.51.4.398

Kobrynowicz, D., & Biernat, M. (1997). Decoding subjective evaluations: How stereotypes provide shifting standards. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33(6), 579-601. doi:10.1006/jesp.1997.1338

Thompson, M., & Sekaquaptewa, D. (2002). When being different is detrimental: Solo status and the performance of women and racial minorities. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 2(1), 183-203. doi:10.1111/j.1530-2415.2002.00037.x

Status Leveling: Based on stereotypes about the lower social standing of minority groups, status leveling occurs when a person from an underrepresented group is assumed to belong to a  lower social category or position

Kanter, R. M. (1977). Some effects of proportions on group life: Skewed sex ratios and responses to token women. American Journal of Sociology, 965-990.

Smith, E. M. (1985). Ethnic minorities: Life stress, social support, and mental health issues. The Counseling Psychologist, 13(4), 537-579. doi:10.1177/0011000085134002

Stereotype Threat: Stereotype threat occurs when awareness of negative stereotypes about one’s own group induces stress and anxiety about confirming the stereotype. Situations that consciously or unconsciously trigger stereotype threat can lead members of minority groups to underperform relative to their ability.

Aronson, J., Fried, C. B., & Good, C. (2002). Reducing the effects of stereotype threat on African American college students by shaping theories of intelligence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38(2), 113-125. doi:10.1006/jesp.2001.1491

Aronson, J., Quinn, D. M., & Spencer, S. J. (1998). Stereotype threat and the academic underperformance of minorities and women. In J. K. Swim, C. Stangor, J. K. Swim, C. Stangor (Eds.) , Prejudice: The target’s perspective (pp. 83-103). San Diego, CA, US: Academic Press.

Brown, R. P., & Pinel, E. C. (2003). Stigma on my mind: Individual differences in the experience of stereotype threat. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39(6), 626-633. doi:10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00039-8

Croizet, J., Després, G., Gauzins, M., Huguet, P., Leyens, J., & Méot, A. (2004). Stereotype Threat Undermines Intellectual Performance by Triggering a Disruptive Mental Load. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin,30(6), 721-731. doi:10.1177/0146167204263961

Gonzales, P. M., Blanton, H., & Williams, K. J. (2002). The effects of stereotype threat and double-minority status on the test performance of Latino women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(5), 659-670. doi:10.1177/0146167202288010

Shapiro, J. R., & Neuberg, S. L. (2007). From stereotype threat to stereotype threats: Implications of a multi-threat framework for causes, moderators, mediators, consequences, and interventions. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11(2), 107-130. doi:10.1177/1088868306294790

Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52(6), 613-629. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.52.6.613

Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797. Doi: /10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797

Taylor, E., & Antony, J. S. (2000). Stereotype threat reduction and wise schooling: Towards the successful socialization of African American doctoral students in education. Journal of Negro Education, 184-198. doi:  10.2307/2696231

Tokenism: Tokenism is treating members of minority groups as representative of their entire group rather than as individuals, especially when they are a numeric minority or the only person from that group present (solo status).

Craig, K. M., & Feasel, K. E. (1998). Do solo arrangements lead to attributions of tokenism? Perceptions of selection criteria and task assignments to race and gender solos. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28(19), 1810-1836. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1998.tb01347.x

Gay, G. (2004). Navigating marginality en route to the professoriate: Graduate students of color learning and living in academia. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 17(2), 265-288. doi:10.1080/09518390310001653907

Laws, J. L. (1975). The psychology of tokenism: An analysis. Sex roles, 1(1), 1-67.

Moradi, B., & Neimeyer, G. J. (2005). Diversity in the Ivory White Tower: A Longitudinal Look at Faculty Race/Ethnicity in Counseling Psychology Academic Training Programs. The Counseling Psychologist, 33(5), 655-675. doi:10.1177/0011000005277823

If you would like more information about Fair Play or upcoming workshops, please email Christine Pribbenow at cmpribbenow@wisc.edu.